The Latin verb system has both finite and non-finite forms. Finite verbs are those whose endings mark the person (1st/2nd/3rd) of the subject. Indicative, imperative and subjunctive verbs are all finite. Non-finite verbs are not marked for person; they include infinitives, participles, gerunds, gerundives and the supine. Only finite verbs can be the main verb of a sentence; subjects of finite verbs are always nominative.
4.1 INDICATIVE VERBS (ItL Ch1)
Indicative verb forms are used to make statements and ask questions of fact. They are used in both main and finite dependent clauses.
4.2 IMPERATIVE VERBS (ItL Ch3)
Imperative verbs are used to give a direct command. They are used only as main verbs, never in dependent clauses. Imperative verbs are 2nd person, both singular and plural, and present tense, and generally active in voice. Imperatives are frequently found with nouns in the vocative case, but syntactically the vocative is not the subject of these verbs.
4.3 SUBJUNCTIVE VERBS (ItL Ch24-27)
Subjunctive verbs are found as main verbs and in dependent clauses (see above in §5 throughout). As a main verb, the subjunctive is used to express the opinion or feeling of the speaker or writer. The most common uses of the main, or independent, subjunctive are:
- hortatory – to urge; an exhortation. This use is usually 1st person plural; the negative is ne.
Example:
In urbem eamus. Let’s go into the city.
- jussive – to demand an action; a command. This use is usually 3rd person singular or plural; the negative is ne.
Example:
Ne domum redeat. Let him not return home.
- optative – to wish for something; a wish. This use is often accompanied by the adverb utinam would that, if only; the negative is ne.
Example:
Utinam fugiat hostes! If only he would escape the enemy!
- deliberative – to ask advice or express doubt or surprise. This use is expressed as a question; the negative is non.
Example:
Quid agam? What should I do?
- potential – indicates that something is possible; the negative is non.
Examples:
Videres pontum. You could see the ocean.
Aliquis dicat hoc. Someone may say this.
4.4 INFINITIVE USES (ItL Ch1, 6, 19, 20)
There are four main uses of the infinitive in Latin:
- complementary – a complementary infinitive combines with a governing verb to fill the verb role in a core structure. The complementary use of the infinitive can be recognized by these two features:
- morphology of the verb (infinitive)
- governing verb which requires an infinitive to complete its meaning
Verbs that pattern regularly with a complementary infinitive:
possum to be able
audeo to dare
soleo, consuesco to be accustomed
Verbs that pattern occasionally with complementary infinitive:
cupio to desire
statuo to decide
debeo ought, must
volo to want
videor to seem
dicitur is said/is considered
A complementary infinitive determines the sentence pattern of a clause.
Examples:
possum librum legere I can read the book (transitive)
possum ire I can go (intransitive)
soleo esuriens esse I am used to being hungry (linking)
Complementary infinitives occasionally appear with verbs of knowing. In these cases, it is necessary to translate the verb as to know/understand how (to do something); the complementary infinitive is then translated normally.
Example:
Vincere scis, victoria uti nescis. You know how to win, you do not know how to use your victory.
- verbal noun – used as the subject and subject complement of 3rd sg forms of esse and other impersonal verbs.
Example:
Errare humanum est. To err is human.
- objective infinitive – an AcI (accusative with infinitive) construction used with certain “bossy” verbs to express a command or wish indirectly.
Example:
Caesar iussit milites pontem facere. Caesar ordered the soldiers to build a bridge.
- indirect statement – an AcI (accusative with infinitive) construction used with verbs of speech and mental action to express a statement indirectly.
Example:
Caesar dixit milites pontem facere. Caesar said that the soldiers were building a bridge.
When the governing verb of speech/mental action is in the passive voice, occasionally the subject of the infinitive is in the nominative and the infinitive is complementary to the governing verb.
Example:
Caesar dicitur esse bonus dux. Caesar is said to be a good leader.
4.5 PARTICIPLE USES (ItL Ch17)
The participle is a verbal adjective, meaning that it has verbal force but has adjectival endings and modifies a noun. Latin has four participles:
- present active participle – 3rd declension endings. This participle is used in participial clauses and ablative absolutes; the present participle of transitive verbs can take a direct object.
Examples:
Video virum currentem. I see the running man.
Fortuna fortes adiuvante, periculum vincitur. With Fortune helping the brave, danger is overcome.
- perfect passive participle – 1st & 2nd declension endings. This participle is given as the fourth principal part of most transitive verbs. It is used as a non-finite verb in participial clauses and ablative absolutes; it is used with forms of sum, esse to create the perfect passive tenses and the perfect passive infinitive.
Examples:
Video virum vulneratum. I see the injured man/man having been injured.
His rebus factis, periculum vincitur. With these things having been done, danger is overcome.
Vir vulneratus est. The man was wounded.
Scio has res factas esse. I know that these things have been done.
- future active participle – 1st & 2nd declension endings; based on stem of perfect passive participle. In some dictionary listings, this participle is given as the fourth principal part of intransitive verbs. It is sometimes used as a non-finite verb in participial clauses with an meaning of purpose; it is used with forms of sum, esse to create the future active periphrastic tenses and the future active infinitive (often with esse gapped).
Examples:
Morituri te salutamus! We (who are) about to die salute you!
Scio eum haec facturum (esse). I know that he will do these things.
- future passive participle – 1st & 2nd declension endings; based on the present stem. When this participle is used in a participial clause, or as an adjective, it is called the gerundive (see below). It is also used with forms of sum, esse to create the future passive periphrastic construction, which expresses a notion of obligation or necessity.
Examples:
Exibant ad urbem condendam. They went out to found/for the purpose of founding a city.
Carthago delenda est. Carthage must be destroyed.
4.6 THE GERUND (ItL Ch29)
The Latin gerund can be recognized by the following features:
- morphology of the verb (the -nd- which marks the gerund); note that gerunds are neuter singular forms, and have only four endings: accusative/ablative/dative/genitive
- no Latin noun-head which matches in case, number, gender
All gerunds must be translated (verb)ing. A gerund may take a direct object, although it usually is found without one.
Examples:
Nihil agendo homines male agere discunt. By doing nothing men learn to behave badly (to do evil). (Marcus Cato)
Hominis mens discendo alitur et cogitando. The mind of man is nourished by learning and thinking. (Cicero)
… cupido incessit animos iuvenum quaerendi ad quem eorum regnum Romanum esset venturum. A desire entered the minds of the young men of asking to which of them the Roman kingdom was going to come.
The gerund quaerendi modifies the nominative noun cupido desire.
The gerund is a verbal noun. It does not occur as subject, complement, or direct object in a kernel. Its function as an adjectival or adverbial modifier is defined by its case use:
- gerund in the genitive case – adjectival modifier
Examples:
ars bene vivendi the art of living well
cupidus discendi desirous of learning
- gerund in the genitive case + causā/gratiā – adverbial modifer; expresses purpose for (the purpose/sake of) ____ing
Example:
pugnandi causā for the sake of fighting
- gerund in the dative case – adverbial modifier; used with adjectives denoting fitness or suitability
Examples:
bonus dicendo good at speaking
navis apta navigando a ship fit for sailing
- gerund in the ablative case – adverbial modifier; ablative of means or as the object of the prepositions a/ab, de, ex and in
Examples:
dicendo dicere discimus we learn to speak by speaking
de bene vivendo dixerunt they spoke about living well
- gerund in the accusative case – adverbial modifier; always the object of a Latin preposition. The most common use is with ad to express purpose.
Examples:
ad pugnandum for fighting or in order to fight
ad audiendum convenerunt they gathered to listen
4.7 THE GERUNDIVE (ItL Ch29)
Gerundive is the traditional name for the future passive participle when it is used adjectivally (i.e., in a participial clause). A gerundive can be recognized by the following two features:
- morphology of the verb form (future passive participle)
- presence of a noun-head which matches the participle in case, number, and gender
The gerundive construction occurs primarily in ablative, genitive, or ad + accusative; sometimes in the dative. Since a gerundive modifies a noun-head, it is an adjectival modifer. Although the gerundive construction is a passive construction, it is generally translated actively in English, with the gerundive translated as a gerund and the subject/noun-head as the direct object. Ad + an accusative noun + gerundive in the accusative always expresses purpose: for (the purpose of ) (verb)ing DO. However, a gerundive in general can be used to express a purpose notion and translated with an English infinitive.
Examples:
In voluptate spernenda et repudianda virtus vel maxime cernitur. Virtue is certainly most clearly distinguished in casting aside or denying pleasure. (Cicero BS35.1)
Illi responderunt se…condendae urbi locum quaerere. They answered that they…were looking for a place for (the purpose of) founding/to found a city.
Mox Faustulus pastor eos collectos Accae Laurentiae coniugi educandos dedit. Soon the shepherd Faustulus gave them, having been collected, to his wife Acca Laurentia for the purpose of rearing/to rear/to be brough up.
4.8 THE PASSIVE PERIPHRASTIC CONSTRUCTION (ItL Ch29, 31)
When the future passive participle (gerundive) is used with a form of sum, esse, it indicates obligation or necessity (subject) must be/ought to be/should be (verb)ed. The traditional name for this construction is the passive periphrastic. If the agent of a passive periphrastic verb (i.e., the person to whom the obligation or necessity falls) is expressed it is in the dative case. As with all periphrastic verb forms in Latin, the future passive participle agrees in case, number and gender with its subject. Person, number, tense and mood are expressed by the form of sum, esse.
Example:
Carthago delenda est. Carthage must be destroyed.
| Memorandum |
| The passive periphrastic with an expressed agent often sounds better in English with an active translation. To do this, translate the dative of agent as the subject and the verb must/has to/had to (verb). Study the examples below. |
Examples:
Caesari omnia agenda erant. Everything had to be done by Caesar. (passive) or Caesar had to do everything. (active)
Hoc mihi faciendum est. This must be done by me. (passive) or I must do this. (active)
Di omnibus colendi sunt. The gods must be worshipped by everyone. (passive) or Everyone must worship the gods. (active)
The passive periphrastic as the verb of an indirect statement will have a future passive participle in the accusative (to agree with the accusative subject) together with the infinitive esse.
Example:
Praeterea censeo Carthaginem esse delendam. Moreover, I think that Carthage must be destroyed. (Marcus Cato)
The passive periphrastic is often found in impersonal constructions, either with a noun clause as subject, or as an impersonal passive with no subject.
Examples:
Fatendum est summum esse bonum iucunde vivere. It must admitted that the greatest good is to live agreeably. (Cicero)
Nunc est bibendum, nunc pede libero pulsanda tellus. Now there must be drinking, now the ground must be tapped with light foot. (Horace)
4.9 THE SUPINE (ItL Ch32)
The supine is a verbal noun which adds the endings of the fourth declension to the perfect passive participle stem. It is found only in the accusative and ablative singular. All instances of the supine can be translated with an English present active infinitive to verb.
The accusative supine is used after verbs of motion to express purpose, and may take an object.
Examples:
venit iuvatum he came to help
legatos misit rogatum pacem he sent envoy to ask for peace
The ablative supine is used as an ablative of specification/respect after adjectives and a few nouns, and never has an object.
Examples:
mirabile dictu strange to say
nefas auditu a crime to hear
4.10 DEPONENT VERBS (ItL Ch22)
A deponent verb is a verb which has only passive forms, but only active meanings. Syntactically, it behaves like an active verb; there are both transitive and intransitive deponent verbs: sequor to follow (transitive) and proficiscor to set out (intransitive). Deponent verbs occur in all of the conjugations. They have three principal parts: sequor I follow, sequi to follow, secutus having followed. The only active form that deponents have is the present active participle: sequens (sequentis) following; the only true passive structure is the future passive periphrastic: milites sequendi sunt the soldiers must be followed. See the Summary of Morphology for the full conjugation of deponent verbs.