Dependent Clauses – Finite

5.1 FINITE DEPENDENT CLAUSES

In Latin, as in English, a finite dependent clause is subordinated to (made dependent on) another clause with a subordinating word, such as a subordinating conjunction, a relative pronoun or an interrogative pronoun (in indirect questions only). For a comprehensive list of subordinating conjunctions, see the list of adverbial clause markers in Syntax Quick Reference section. Dependent clauses with subordinators have finite (indicative or subjunctive) verbs and nominative subjects.

Examples:
Olim in Asia erat urbs antiqua, quae Troia appellata est. Once in Asia there was an ancient city, which was called Troy. (adjectival, relative clause)
Aeneas, cum profugos ex omnibus partibus coegisset, in Italiam migrare constituit. Aeneas, when he had gathered refugees from all parts, decided to migrate to Italy. (adverbial, circumstantial clause)
Latinus rogavit cur Troiani in Italiam venissent. Latinus asked why the Trojans had come to Italy. (noun-DO, indirect question)

5.2 EMBEDDED DEPENDENT CLAUSES

Latin more often than English interrupts a clause by embedding another clause into it. Latin has a fixed word-order rule that helps the linear reader or listener to follow clause boundaries and not lose comprehension: the clause which was begun first, gets the last verb and the clause which begins last, gets the first verb. This rule of “first begun—last finished: last begun—first finished” allows complex embedding not just of a dependent clause into a main clause (as in the examples below), but also of many levels of dependent clauses within other dependent clauses.

Examples:
Inde rex Latinus Aboriginesque, qui tum ea tenebant loca, armati ex urbe atque agris concurrunt. Then king Latinus and the Aborigines, who at that time controlled those places, ran armed from the city and fields.
Here the relative clause qui…tenebant is embedded into the main clause. The main clause with subject rex Latinus Aboriginesque starts first, therefore, its verb concurrunt comes last; the relative clause starts last, therefore its verb tenebant comes first.
Itaque ibi coeperunt Troiani munire locum, [quem Aeneas ex nomine uxoris suae, Latini regis filiae, [quae iam ante desponsa Turno erat,] Lavinium nominavit]. And so there the Trojans began to fortify a place, [which Aeneas named Lavinium from the name of his wife, the daughter of king Latinus, [who previously had been betrothed to Turnus]].
Here the relative clause quae desponsa erat is embedded into another relative clause quem Aeneas…Lavinium nominavit. quem Aeneas begins a relative clause, but before this clause is complete, another relative clause begins with quae iam. The quae clause will finish first with the verb desponsa erat; the verb of the quem clause, nominavit, follows the entire quae clause.

**5.3 TEMPORAL CLAUSE (ItL Ch12, 26)**

Clauses of time, or temporal clauses, are finite and adverbial. The following chart presents a list of subordinating conjunctions which mark temporal clauses.

Subordinating Conjuction	Mood of Verb in Dep. Clause	Semantic Category	English Equivalent of Clause Marker
antequam/priusquam	indicative	time	before they did ____
antequam/priusquam	subjuncitve	time + anticipation	before they could ____
cum	indicative	time	when/whenever
dum/donec	indicative	time	while/as long as
dum/quoad	subjunctive	time + anticipation	while/as long as
postquam	indicative	time	after
ubi	indicative	time	when, as soon as
ut	indicative	time	when, as

**5.4 CAUSAL CLAUSE (ItL Ch12, 26)**

Causal clauses are finite adverbial clauses which explain the reason or cause for an action or situation in a higher clause. Below are subordinating conjunctions which mark causal clauses.

Subordinating Conjuction	Mood of Verb in Dep. Clause	Semantic Category	English Equivalent of Clause Marker
cum	subjunctive	cause	since, because
quia/quod/quoniam	indicative	cause	because

The verb in a causal clause is in the indicative (if the speaker agrees with the cause that he gives) or subjunctive mood (if the speaker gives a cause on someone else’s authority).

A causal clause with clause marker quod can be distinguished from a relative clause in the following ways:

there is no neuter noun equivalent as a possible antecedent
quod has no kernel (core) role in its own clause
the dependent clause has no kernel (core) or appositional role in the governing clause

Examples:
Romani, quod conubia cum finitimis non habebant, penuriam mulierum habebant.  The Romans, because they did not have rights of intermarriage with the neighbors, had lack of women.
Quod regnum Proca fratribus reliquit, discordia facta est.  Because Proca bequeathed the kingdom to the brothers, conflict arose.
Quod regnum Proca fratribus reliquisset, discordia facta est.  Because (allegedly) Proca had bequeathed the kingdom to the brothers, conflict arose.
Romani bellum, quod finitimi conubium non dedērunt, gerere voluērunt.  The Romans wanted to wage war because the neighbors did not give them rights of intermarriage.

Contrast the last sentence with the following relative clause:
Romani conubium quod finitimi dare non potuerunt, voluerunt. The Romans wanted the right of intermarriage which the neighbors could not give them.

**5.5 CONDITIONS (ItL Ch12, 27)**

All conditional clauses are finite and adverbial; they are marked by si if, nisi/ni if not, unless, and sin but if. The main clause in a conditional sentence is referred to as the protasis, and the conditional clause as the apodosis. Conditions in Latin can be divided into two types: real or simple conditions, which imply nothing about the reality of the situation, and subjunctive or irrealis conditions, which imply that the situation is not true or doubtful; depending on the tense of the verb, these clauses express conditions contrary-to-fact (i.e., not true) or less vivid (i.e., doubtful).

The following features indicate a real or simple condition:

subordinating conjunction si/nisi/ni/sin
dependent verb is in indicative of any tense
generally, the main clause has an indicative verb in the same tense

Examples:
Si agis id, prudens es. If you do that, you are wise.
Si iudex tibi credet, nullam poenam dare cogeris. If the judge believes you, you will not be compelled to pay any penalty.

The following features indicate a contrary-to-fact condition:

subordinating conjunction si/nisi/ni/sin
dependent verb is in the subjunctive, either pluperfect for past contrary-to-fact or imperfect for present contrary-to-fact
generally, the main clause has a subjunctive verb in the same tense

Examples:
Si id egisses, prudens fuisses.  If you had done that, you would have been wise. (past)
Si id ageres, prudens esses.  If you were doing that, you would be wise. (present)
Si iudex tibi credidisset, nullam poenam dare coactus esses.  If the judge had believed you, you would have not been compelled to pay any penalty. (past)

The following features indicate a less vivid condition:

subordinating conjunction si/nisi/ni/sin
dependent verb is in the present subjunctive, or perfect in the si-clause
generally, the main clause has a present subjunctive

Examples:
Si id agas/egeris, prudens sis. If you should do/were to do that, you be would be wise.
Si iudex tibi credat, nullam poenam dare cogaris. Should the judge believe you, you would not be compelled to pay any penalty.

**5.6 CLAUSES OF COMPARISON (ItL Ch21, 32)**

Latin uses finite adverbial to show two types of comparison: comparison of degree, which compares one item to another in unequal terms, and comparison of manner, which compares the way in which two events or situations are similar. Because the higher clause and the clause of comparison have elements in common, there is usually extensive gapping in comparison clauses, and it is normal for them to have no verb expressed.

The following features indicate a clause of comparison of degree:

subordinating conjunction quam than
dependent verb is in indicative or subjunctive; the verb is frequently gapped
the governing clause generally has a comparative adverb or adjective as a signal word; e.g., potius more, to a greater extent; magis more

A clause of comparison with the clause marker quam can be distinguished from a relative clause in the following ways:

there is no feminine singular noun equivalent as a possible antecedent
quam has no core function in its own clause
there is a comparative adjective or adverb in the governing clause
the dependent clause has no core function or appositional role in the governing clause

Examples:
Vox audita brevior est quam verbum scriptum. The spoken word (word having been heard) is briefer than the written word.
Domus erat non domino magis ornamento quam civitati. The house was not more an ornament to the owner than (it was) to the citizens.

The following features indicate a clause of comparison of manner:

subordinating conjunction ut as, just as,
dependent verb is in the indicative mood or (very frequently) gapped.

Examples:
Ut fragilis glacies, interit ira mora. Just as perishable ice melts, anger dies down with time. (Ovid)
Interit is gapped in the ut-clause.
Victores tamen ducem ut antea amiserunt. The victors however lost their leader as (they had) before.

Two other subordinating conjunctions are used to express clauses of comparison: quasi as if and quotiens as often as. Clauses with these conjunctions generally have indicative verbs, but a subjunctive verb may occur with an added sense of anticipation. This anticipation is often expressed in English by using could when translating the subjunctive verb.

**5.7 CLAUSE OF PLACE/LOCATIVE CLAUSE (ItL 12)**

Finite adverbial clauses expressing place are introduced either by ubi or quo, both conjunctions having the meaning where. Locative clauses usually are referential to an expression of place in the main clause, having a sematic relationship similar to a relative clause. They are often correlative to ibi there or eo there, to that place in the main clause.

Examples:
Romulus et Remus in iis locis ubi expositi erant urbem condere constituerunt. Romulus and Remus decided to found a city on the spot where they had been exposed.
Asylum aperuit in monte Capitolino, quo multi profugerunt. He opened an asylum on the Capitoline hill where many fled for refuge.

Memorandum

Ubi can introduce dependent clauses expressing both place and time. English uses different words for these—where vs. when—so the reader must be careful to distinguish. Generally, if ubi occurs in sentence-initial position, or without a place expression to refer to, the clause is temporal.

**5.8 PURPOSE CLAUSE (ItL Ch25)**

Expressions of purpose are adverbial. A finite clause of purpose can be recognized by the following:

ut (for a positive purpose clause) in order that; (in order) to; ne (for a negative purpose clause) in order that … not ….
verb is in the present or imperfect subjunctive
no signal words or cues in the main clause

Examples:
Non ut edam vivo, sed ut vivam edo.  I do not live to eat, but I eat to live. (Quintilian)
Curramus celerrime ne videamur.  Let’s run very fast in order not to be seen.
Venerunt ut nos viderent.  They came in order that they might see us.
Ut fratrem subole privaret, Amulius filiam eius Vestae sacerdotem praefecit.  In order to deprive his brother of progeny, Amulius appointed his daughter a priestess of Vesta.

Memorandum

Either a finite clause or an infinitive phrase can be used to translate a purpose clause into English. Because an English subjunctive verb must be used with a finite construction, it often easier to use the infinitive. E.g., Non ut edam vivo. I do not live in order that I may eat. vs. I do not eat to live. Because a purpose clause indicates an intent or goal, and not something actually happening, never use an English indicative verb when translating a purpose clause, e.g., I do not live in order that I am eating.

**5.9 RESULT CLAUSE – ADVERBIAL (ItL Ch25)**

An adverbial clause of result is finite and has the following features:

ut that or ut … non (negative) that … not …
dependent verb is in the subjunctive mood
a signal word in the higher clause that has the general meaning so or such. These signal words include the following:
adeo  to such a degree (adv)
ita  thus, so (adv)
sic  thus, so (adv)
tam  so (adv)
totiens  so often (adv)
talis, e  such (adj)
tantus, a, um  so great (adj)
tot (indecl)  so many (adj)

Examples:
Tanta vis probitatis est, ut eam in hoste etiam diligamus. So great is the power of honesty that we esteem it even in an enemy. (Cicero)
Tempestas tam denso nimbo regem texit ut conspectum eius abstulerit. The storm covered the king with such a dense cloud that it took away the sight of him.

Memorandum

Unlike purpose clauses, result clauses express events or situations that actually happen. Therefore, always use that for ut and an English indicative verb when translating them. Do not use an infinitive or English subjunctive. E.g., Cucurrimus tam celeriter ut non videremur. We ran so fast that we were not seen.

**5.10 CIRCUMSTANTIAL CLAUSE (ItL Ch26)**

These finite adverbial clauses are marked by cum when and a verb in any tense of the subjunctive. Because they present the circumstances under which the main clause takes place, they are very often found in the beginning of a sentence. In historical narrative, the most common tenses of the subjunctive in these clauses are the imperfect and the pluperfect. Always translate the subjunctives in these clauses with English indicatives.

Example:
Cum acies constitissent, processit Latinus inter primores. When the battle lines had taken up their positions, Latinus went out between the front ranks.

**5.11 CLAUSE OF CONCESSION (ItL Ch26)**

Finite adverbial clauses of concession are marked with the following subordinating conjunctions.

Subordinating Conjuction	Mood of Verb in Dep. Clause	Semantic Category	English Equivalent of Clause Marker
cum	subjunctive	concession	although
quamquam/etsi	indicative	concession	although
quamvis	subjunctive	concession	although

When cum is used to mark concession, the adverb tamen however, nevertheless is frequently found in the main clause to emphasize this interpretation and help distinguish it from cause or circumstance.

Example:
Cum adversus Etruscos se moenibus defendere posset, tamen in aciem copias eduxit. Although he was able to defend himself against the Etruscans with walls, he nevertheless led his troops out into battle.

5.12 CUM-CLAUSES WITH THE SUBJUNCTIVE

The logical relationship of the cum-clause to the main or governing clause must be taken into account when deciding whether the clause expresses circumstance, cause, or concession. Circumstance (when) should be the initial interpretation for these clauses, until the logical relationship can be determined. Clauses of concession are very likely to be marked with the presence of tamen however, nevertheless in the main clause.

Examples:
Cum haec dixisset, ad me fugit. When he had said these things, he fled to me. (circumstantial)
Cum haec dixisset, ad me fugit. Because he had said these things, he fled to me. (causal)

5.13 CLAUSE OF PROVISO

These clauses all have the following features:

dum/dummodo provided (that)
dependent verb is in the subjunctive mood

Examples:
Oderint, dum metuant. Let them hate (me), provided that they fear (me).
Dummodo sit dives, barbarus ipse placet. Provided he is rich, even a barbarian is pleasing. (Ovid)

**5.14 RELATIVE ADJECTIVAL CLAUSE (ItL Ch13)**

A Latin relative adjectival clause can be recognized by these three features:

qui, quae, quod (relative pronoun) who, which, that as subordinator
dependent verb in the indicative
a noun-head in the governing clause, also known as the antecedent of the relative pronoun

The relative pronoun agrees with its antecedent in number and gender. The case of the relative pronoun marks its function in the clause in which it appears. A relative adjectival clause is usually found immediately or closely following its antecedent.

The relative pronoun is a core element in its own clause if it is the subject or direct object or complement. Whether it is or is not is it a part of the core, a relative pronoun is always a clause marker.

Memorandum

Normally a relative clause should be translated right after its antecedent. While a form of a relative pronoun is obligatory in Latin in a relative clause, English can use the relative who, which, the generic relative that or can delete a relative clause marker entirely if it functions as an object. E.g., Aeneas urbem condidit quam Lavinium vocavit. Aeneas founded a city which he called Lavinium. or Aeneas founded a city that he called Lavinium. or Aeneas founded a city he called Lavinium.

Examples:
Virum qui currit videmus.  We see the man who is running.
Virum quem monuerunt videmus.  We see the man (whom/that) they advised.
Erant itinera duo, quibus domo exire poterant.  There were two routes, by which they were able to leave home.

**5.15 RELATIVE NOUN CLAUSES (ItL Ch18)**

Just as an adjective without a noun-head (a substantive adjective) can be used as a noun, a relative clause without an antecedent can be used as a core element in a higher clause. A Latin relative noun clause can be recognized by these features:

qui, quae, quod (relative pronoun) who, which, that or quicumque, quaecumque, quodcumque (indefinite relative prn) whoever, whatever, whichever
dependent verb in the indicative
no antecedent for the relative pronoun

Memorandum

In translating a relative noun clause into English, either provide an antecedent of the appropriate gender and number, e.g., one who, she whom, those which, or use the indefinite whoever, whatever if it seems to fit the context.

Examples:
Qui hoc dicunt videntur mihi errare. Those who/whoever say this seem to me to be mistaken.
Quos Caesar amavit laudamus. We praise those whom Caesar loved.

**5.16 RELATIVE CLAUSE OF PURPOSE (ItL Ch30)**

A relative clause with a verb in the subjunctive can be used to show purpose. With an antecedent, these clauses are adjectival; without an antecedent they are noun clauses. A relative clause of purpose is frequently found with expressions of sending.

Memorandum

Translate the subjunctive verb in relative clauses of purpose with should/were to ____, or use the infinitive to show purpose.

Examples:
Milites misit qui urbem caperent.  He sent soldiers (who were) to capture the city.
Scribebat orationes quas alii dicerent.  He used to write speeches for other to deliver/which others were to deliver.
Romulus legatos misit qui conubium peterent.  Romulus sent envoys who were to seek the right of intermarriage.

**5.17 RELATIVE CLAUSE OF CHARACTERISTIC (ItL Ch30)**

A relative clause with a verb in the subjunctive can be used to describe a characteristic of someone or something rather than to state an actual fact. The relative clause of characteristic is an indefinite relative clause; it is frequently a noun clause with no antecedent, or there may be an indefinite antecedent, such as a form of is, ea, id or multi/multa.

Memorandum

Translate the subjunctive verb in relative clauses of characteristic with would/might/may ____, or with the indicative if it seems appropriate. If there is no antecedent in Latin, it may be necessary to supply one in English.

Examples:
At sunt qui dicant… But there are some who might say that….
Multa sunt quae mentem moveant. There are many things which influence the mind.

**5.18 INDIRECT QUESTION (ItL Ch28)**

The indirect question is a finite noun clause, which functions as the subject or object of verbs of mental action, speaking and asking. A Latin indirect question can be recognized by three features:

interrogative (question) word
verb in the subjunctive
governing verbs of asking, saying, or knowing

Some of the most frequently occurring interrogatives are:
quis, quid  who? what?
cur  why?
num  whether, if?
utrum…an  whether…or…?
quod modo  how? in what manner?
unde  from where?

Some of the most frequently occurring verbs of asking, saying, or knowing are:
dico, dicere, dixi, dictus  to say
rogo, rogare, rogavi, rogatus  to ask
quaero, quaerere, quaesivi, quaesitus  to seek, ask
interrogo, interrogare, interrogavi, interrogatus  to ask
requiro, requirere, requisii/requisivi, requisitus  to ask for, look for
scio, scire, scivi, scitus  to know

Memoranudm

Translate the subjunctive verb in indirect questions as an indicative verb in English. In cases where a future sense is needed, the Latin will use a future active periphrastic verb form, as there is no future tense in the subjunctive mood. E.g., Iuvenes statuerunt quaerere ex oraculo ad quem eorum regnum esset venturum. The young men decided to ask from the oracle to which of them the kingdom would/was going to come.

Examples:
Deinde rogavit qui mortales…essent.  Then he asked what peoples (what kind of mortals) they were.
Qui here is an interrogative adjective, modifying mortales.
Scies quis sim.  You will know who I am.
Non dixit cur venisset.  She did not say why she had come.

Memorandum

How can the reader avoid confusion between a relative pronoun, an interrogative pronoun and an interrogative adjective? Paying attention to the left-to-right sequencing of words will help. Study the examples below.

Examples:
Dux, qui urbem condidit….  The leader who founded the city…
This sentence contains a relative pronoun preceded by a noun.
Rogavi quis urbem condidisset.  I asked who founded the city.
This sentence contains an interrogative pronoun preceded by a verb of asking.
Rogavi qui homo urbem condidisset.  I asked which/what man founded the city.
This sentence contains an interrogative adjective preceded by a verb of asking and followed by a noun in matching case, gender and number.

**5.19 INDIRECT COMMAND (ItL Ch28)**

A Latin finite indirect command is a noun clause that can be recognized by three features:

ut that; ne that . . . not
a verb in the present or imperfect subjunctive
a governing verb having the one of the following semantic notions: order/urge, wish, allow, or resolve

Common verbs of order/urge include:
hortor  urge, encourage + accusative
impero  order, command, impose + dative
moneo  warn, advise + accusative
oro  beg, entreat + accusative
peto  ask, request + ab + ablative
postulo  demand, desire + ab + ablative
precor  pray, entreat + accusative
quaero  desire, ask + ex/ab + ablative
rogo  ask, beg, request + accusative
suadeo persuade, convince + dative
edico  issue an order + dative

Common verbs of wish include:
volo  wish
nolo  not wish
malo  prefer
cupio  wish, desire

Common verbs of allow include:
permitto  allow, permit + dative
sino  allow + accusative
patior  allow + accusative
licet  allow + dative

Common verbs of resolve include:
censeo  propose
constituo  decide
statuo  decide, determine

Indirect commands usually function as the direct object of one of the verbs above. They can also be the subject of such a verb when it is in the passive voice. An indirect command can also be appositional to a pronoun such as hoc or id, or a noun with the meaning an order, a command, a request, etc. Many verbs governing indirect command have two direct objects: the person receiving the order is one direct object and the Indirect Command noun clause is the other direct object.

Memorandum

As with purpose clauses, either a finite clause or an infinitive phrase can be used to translate an indirect command into English. Because an English subjunctive verb must be used with a finite construction, it often easier to use the infinitive. Because an indirect command indicates what someone wants or doesn’t want to have happen, and not something actually happening, never use an English indicative verb when translating, e.g., I order him that he comes.

Listed below are some of the most common of the expressions that raise the expectation of an indirect command. Also included are some of the many English equivalents:
Hortor eum ut veniat.  I urge him to come.
Impero ei ut veniat.  I order him to come.
Moneo eum ut veniat.  I advise him to come/that he should come.
Oro eum ut veniat.  I beg him to come.
Peto ab eo ut veniat.  I ask him to come. or I seek from him that he come.
Quaero ab eo ut veniat.  I request (from) him to come.
Rogo eum ut veniat.  I ask him to come.
Censeo ut veniat.  I propose that he come.

Examples:
Romulus edixit ne quis vallum transiliret.  Romulus issued an order that no one jump over the wall.
Caesar imperavit militibus ut pontem facerent.  Caesar ordered the soldiers to make a bridge.
Nuntia Romanis deos hoc velle, ut mea Roma caput orbis terrarum sit.  Announce to the Romans that the gods want this, that my Rome be the head of the world.

**5.20 NOUN RESULT CLAUSE (ItL CH28)**

A noun result clause is a finite clause which functions as the subject or direct object of certain verbs and impersonal expressions. A noun result clause can be recognized by the following features:

ut that or ut … non (negative) that … not …
dependent verb in the subjunctive mood
a governing verb of having the general sense of bring about, come about, happen

Below are some verbs and expressions which commonly pattern with a noun result clause:

Verb	Noun Clause Function
facio (and compounds) make	direct object
efficio bring about	direct object
conficio accomplish	direct object
efficitur (pass. of efficio) be brought about	subject
accidit happen	subject
fit (from fio) come about	subject
mos est it is the custom	subject complement
necesse est (usually w/o ut) it is necessary	subject complement

Examples:
Regem ut in sua potestate haberet, Caesar effecit.  Caesar brought it about that he had a king in his power.
Erat mos Romanorum ut deos colerent.  It was the custom of the Romans to worship the gods.
Eadem nocte accidit ut esset luna plena.  The same night it happened that there was a full moon.
His rebus fiebat ut minus facile finitimis bellum inferre possent.  Because of these things it happened that they were less easily able to make war on their neighbors.

**5.21 CLAUSE OF FEARING (ItL CH28)**

A clause of fearing is a finite noun clause that can be recognized by three features:

ne that; ut that . . . not
a verb in the present or imperfect subjunctive
a governing verb or expression of fearing, such as timeo, metuo, vereor, timor est or metus est

With clauses of fearing, the meanings of the clause markers ut and ne are the reverse of what they mean elsewhere. Ne indicates a fear that something will happen and should be translated as that, lest. Ut indicates a fear that something will not happen and should be translated as that…not.

Memorandum

A verb or other expression of fearing in a higher clause is a very strong signal to the reader that a ne/ut clause is a clause of fearing. Particularly in historical narrative prose, clauses of fearing with ne are far more numerous than those with ut. Therefore, unless there is a fearing expression, the reader should make a clause of fearing the last choice for an ut-clause.

Examples:
Metuo ne veniant. I fear that they will come. or I fear lest they (may) come.
Metuo ut veniant. I fear that they will not come.

5.22 QUIN CLAUSES

Finite dependent clauses introduced by the subordinating conjunction quin express the notions of hinderance, doubt, or uncertainty. These are noun clauses and the dependent verb is in the subjunctive. They are found with governing verbs or expressions which are negated, e.g., non dubito I do not doubt or non dubium est it is not doubtful. Like all noun clauses, quin clauses can function as Subject or Direct Object in the governing clause, or as a noun in apposition.

Examples:
Neque abest suspicion quin ipse sibi mortem consciverit. The suspicion is not absent that he inflicted death upon himself.
(Dixit) non esse dubium quin totius Galliae plurimum Helvetii possent. (He said that) it was not doubtful that the Helvetians were the most powerful in all of Gaul.