The core of a sentence or clause is the group of words which is the minimum necessary to express a complete thought. Both main and dependent clauses have a core as their basic structure. A core contains a subject and a predicate. The predicate consists of a verb and any object or complement it may take. In Latin there are seven different types of core structures; these are called sentence patterns.
These seven sentence patterns and their core elements are:
- transitive: subject, verb, direct object
- intransitive: subject, verb
- passive: subject, passive verb
- linking: subject, linking verb, subject complement
- factitive: subject, factitive verb, direct object, object complement
- special intransitive: subject, special intransitive verb, dat/abl/gen object
- impersonal passive: intransitive passive verb
The sentence pattern is determined by the verb and the type of object and/or complement that it can take. Some verbs occur in more than one sentence pattern; e.g., esse can be intransitive or linking; in the active voice, facere can be transitive or factitive.
| Memorandum |
| When there is a verb which takes a complementary infinitive, it is the infinitive which determines the sentence pattern. Compare these example sentences: Debeo te videre. I ought to see you. (transitive); Debeo currere. I ought to run. (intransitive); Debeo esse felix. I ought to be happy. (linking); Debeo tibi credere. I ought to believe you. (special intransitive). |
The table below summarizes the various items which can have a role in the core:
| Subject | Verb | Direct object or abl/dat/gen object or subject/object complement |
| noun pronoun verbal noun infinitive phrase substantive adjective noun clause | finite verb non-finite verb (inf or pple) verb + complementary infinitive | noun pronoun substantive adjective noun clause |
1.1 TRANSITIVE SENTENCE PATTERN (ItL Chapter 1)
Transitive active verbs, such as amat he/she/it loves, take a direct object in the accusative. Transitive sentence patterns thus have three core elements:
- subject
- verb
- direct object
Examples:
Volo te videre. I want to see you.
Urbem Troiam Graeci decem annos obsederunt. The Greeks besieged the city Troy for ten years.
Post pugnam ducem reperire non potuerunt. After the battle they were unable to find their leader.
1.2 INTRANSITIVE SENTENCE PATTERN (ItL Chapter 1)
Intransitive verbs, such as venit he/she/it comes do not take an accusative direct object. The intransitive active sentence pattern therefore has only two core elements:
- subject
- verb
Intransitive verbs often express motion or state of being, e.g.,
| Motion | State of Being |
| eo, ire, ii, iturus to go venio, ire, veni, venturus to come | duro, are, duravi, duratus to last, endure sto, stare, steti, staturus to stand |
Some verbs like venio are always intransitive, others like duro can be both transitive and intransitive. If a verb is intransitive, it either does not have a perfect passive participle as its fourth principal part, or the fourth principal part is the future active participle ending in -urus. Some dictionaries do not list any fourth principal part for intransitive verbs, others list the supine as the fourth principal part of all verbs (e.g. facio, facere, feci, factum) and mark transitivity with the abbreviations vi (intransitive verb) and vt (transitive verb).
Examples:
Processit Latinus inter primores. Latinus went out among the front ranks.
Acies constitit. The battle line took up a position.
Troiani in Italiam migrare constituit. The Trojans decided to migrate to Italy.
| Memorandum |
| The verb est, when the clause contains only one core element in the nominative (the subject), is intransitive. When it is used to introduce new information, it is normally in sentence-initial position and must be translated as there is, there exists. When it is not in sentence-initial position it can be translated both as there is, there exists and simply as is. |
Examples:
Est penuria mulierum in civitate. There is a deficiency of women in the state.
Homines in civitate sunt. The people are in the state. or There are people in the state. (determined by context)
1.3 PASSIVE SENTENCE PATTERN (ItL Chapter 14)
Like intransitive verbs, passive verbs do not take an accusative direct object. The passive sentence pattern also has only two core elements:
- subject
- verb
In a passive sentence pattern the subject is not the agent, or “doer” of the action, but the entity to whom or which something is being done. The agent of a passive verb is expressed using the preposition a/ab + the ablative of an animate noun.
Examples:
Acies instruuntur. The battle lines are being set up.
Rex Troiae et filii a Graecis interfecti sunt. The king of Troy and (his) sons were killed by the Greeks.
Ego audiri volo. I desire to be heard.
| Memorandum |
| Some verbs in the passive voice are found in linking as well as passive sentence patterns. When this is the case, there will be a second nominative acting as the subject complement. These verbs include appello, voco, habeo and video For more information, see §1.4 below on linking sentence patterns. |
1.4 LINKING SENTENCE PATTERN (ItL Chapter 5, 15)
A linking sentence pattern has three core elements with these functions:
- subject
- verb (linking)
- subject complement (noun or adjective in the same case as the subject); also called the predicate nominative
The finite linking sentence pattern has a verb that patterns with a complement in the nominative case. This complement is called a subject complement because it is linked to the subject. This is in contrast to a transitive active verb, which patterns with a direct object in the accusative case. Est is the most common linking verb, but fit becomes and some passive verbs like appellatur or vocatur is called, habetur is considered, and videtur seems can also function as linking verbs.
Verbs frequently occurring in a linking pattern include:
est is (not exists)
fit becomes
videtur seems (not is seen)
vocatur is named (not is called for, is summoned)
appellatur is called, named
declaratur is declared, proclaimed
creatur is created, elected, chosen
iudicatur is judged
habetur is considered
Examples:
Dux Troianorum erat Aeneas. The leader of the Trojans was Aeneas.
Sapientia ars vivendi declarata est. Wisdom has been proclaimed the art of living.
Debeo esse felix. I ought to be happy.
Difficile est deponere amorem. To put aside love is difficult.
In the first sentence, Dux is the subject, erat the linking verb, and Aeneas the subject complement. In the second example, Sapientia is the subject, ars the subject complement and declarata est the linking verb. In the third, Debeo esse is the linking verb and the adjective felix the subject complement; the subject ego is not expressed. In the last example, the infinitive phrase deponere amorem is the subject of the linking verb est, and the adjective Difficile is the subject complement.
| Memorandum |
| The linking verb must be accompanied by both a subject and a subject complement in order to fulfill its linking function. In the absence of a subject complement, these verbs must be read as either intransitive (est there is, exists; fit happens) or passive (appellatur, vocatur is summoned; habetur is possessed; videtur is seen). Note the difference in meaning when these are not linking verbs. |
When a linking pattern occurs in a non-finite clause in which the subject is not in the nominative case, then the subject complement is in the same case as the subject. Thus, in indirect statement the subject complement is accusative to match the accusative subject; in an ablative absolute the subject complement is ablative to agree with the ablative subject.
Examples:
Illi responderunt se esse Troianos. They responded that they were Trojans.
The sentence above shows a linking pattern in indirect statement; se is the accusative subject, esse the linking verb in the infinitive, and Troianos the accusative subject complement.
Caesare consule creato,… With Caesar having been elected consul,…
Caesare duce,… With Caesar (as/being) leader,…
These ablative absolutes both have linking sentence patterns. In the first, Caesare is the ablative subject, consule the ablative subject complement, and the ablative participle creato the linking verb. Because the verb sum, esse to be has no present participle, the second example has only the ablative subject Caesare and subject complement duce, but no verb is expressed.
1.5 FACTITIVE SENTENCE PATTERN (ItL Chapter 8)
A factitive sentence pattern has four items with these functions:
- subject
- verb in the semantic range of call, name, make, elect (appello, declaro, facio, creo)
- direct object in the accusative
- object complement in the accusative
The factitive pattern has the same verbs (except sum, esse) as the linking, but they are in the active voice and pattern with two accusatives that are in a semantic relationship of X=Y or X becomes Y. Read these English examples:
They made a teacher treasurer. (i.e., the teacher “= becomes” treasurer)
They consider the water pure. (i.e., the water “= seems” pure)
They call the agreement a fraud. (i.e., the agreement “= is called” a fraud)
The word order in the Latin will generally tell the reader what the function of the two accusatives is. The first accusative is normally the direct object and the second the object complement.
Examples:
Necessitudo etiam timidos fortes facit. Necessity makes even timid individuals brave.
In this sentence, necessitudo is the subject, the substantive adjective timidos the direct object, the substantive adjective fortes the object complement, and facit the factitive verb.
Trojani urbem condiderunt, quam Aeneas ab nomine uxoris Lavinium appellavit. The Trojans founded a city, which Aeneas named Lavinium from the name of his wife.
In this sentence, the relative clause has a factitive pattern; quam is the direct object, Aeneas the subject, Lavinium the object complement, and appellavit the factitive verb.
1.6 SPECIAL INTRANSITIVE SENTENCE PATTERN (ItL Chapter 7, 23)
The dative in the environment of certain intransitive verbs is the equivalent of the accusative direct object of transitive verbs and is called a dative object; the sentence pattern is called special intransitive. This pattern and use of the dative can be recognized by:
- a subject
- a verb which raises the expectation of a dative object
- an object in the dative, usually with the semantic feature animate
Special intransitive verbs which raise the expectation of a dative object:
credo, credere, credidi, creditus trust, rely on (not entrust)
faveo, favere, favi favor, offer a favor to
noceo, nocere, nocui harm, do harm to, injure
nubo, nubere, nupsi, nuptus marry (for a woman as subject)
parco, parcere, peperci spare, be lenient to
pareo, parere, parui obey, be obedient to
persuadeo, persuadere, persuasi, persuasurus persuade
placeo, placere, placui, placitus please, be pleasing to
resisto, resistere, restiti resist, oppose, offer resistance to
servio, servire, servivi serve, help, offer service to
studeo, studere, studui be eager for, favor, strive after
suadeo, suadere, suasi convince, persuade
Some special intransitive verbs take objects in the ablative or genitive case.
Special intransitive verbs which raise the expectation of an ablative object:
utor, uti, usus use, make use of
fruor, frui, fructus make use of, enjoy
fungor, fungi, functus be engaged in, be busy with, discharge
potior, potiri, potitus take control of, acquire, obtain
vescor, vesci feed on
Special intransitive verbs which raise the expectation of a genitive object:
memini, meminisse remember
obliviscor, oblivisci, oblitus forget
Example:
Solitudo placet Musis, urbs est inimica poetis. Solitude pleases the Muses; the city is unfriendly to poets. (Plutarch)
In this sentence, Solitudo is the subject, placet the verb, and Musis the dative object.
1.7 IMPERSONAL PASSIVE SENTENCE PATTERN (ItL Chapter 31)
An impersonal passive sentence pattern has only one core element—an intransitive verb in the passive voice. If finite, the verb will be third person singular; a passive infinitive may also occur in this pattern. Verbs of this type never have a Latin subject, something which makes it impossible to translate them literally into English. Unlike the Latin, English must have a subject either expressed or understood. For example, in translating the Latin impersonal passive pugnatur, we have the option of choosing one fights, they fight, fighting/a fight takes place or there is fighting/a fight. This construction is used when the focus is being placed on the action rather than on the agent(s), or doer(s) of the action.
Among the more common verbs occuring as impersonal passives are:
venitur, ventum est
itur, itum est
pugnatur, pugnabatur, pugnabitur, pugnatum est
bibitur, bibendum est
Examples:
Postquam Delphos ventum est,… After they came to Delphi,… or After the arrival at Delphi,…
Itur in antiquam silvam. One enters into the ancient forest. (Vergil, Aeneid)
Nunc est bibendum, nunc pede libero pulsanda tellus. Now there must be drinking, now the ground must be tapped with light foot. (Horace)
1.8 THE SENTENCE PATTERNS OF DEPONENT VERBS (ItL Ch22)
A deponent verb is a verb which has only passive forms, but only active meanings. Syntactically, it behaves like an active verb; there are both transitive and intransitive deponent verbs: sequor to follow (transitive) and proficiscor to set out (intransitive). There are also deponents which are special intransitive verbs, such as utor (+abl obj) and obliviscor (+gen obj) (see above in §7).
The semi-deponent fio, fieri, factus become, be made, happen is found in three patterns: intransitive, linking and passive.