The various case uses of nouns, pronouns and substantive adjectives can be categorized by the function that a particular use has in the sentence. The three categories are:
- core element – functioning as part of the core (S, DO, SC, OC, dat/abl/genO)
- adjectival modifier – modifies (i.e., describes) a noun or noun equivalent. The noun modified by an adjectival modifier is called its noun-head.
- adverbial modifier – modifies a verb, adjective or adverb, or an entire sentence. The word or phrase modified by an adverbial modifier is called its head.
2.1 NOMINATIVE (ItL CH2, 5)
The nominative case has two functions, both of them core functions:
- subject of a finite verb
- subject complement in a finite linking sentence pattern
2.2 GENITIVE
In most uses, the genitive case is an adjectival modifier, i.e., it is used to express the relation of one noun to another. As the object of certain verbs, the genitive has a core function. It is also found as an adverbial modifier with certain adjectives.
Adjectival and adverbial uses of the genitive are usually best translated with the prepositional phrase “of ____.” Some uses of the genitive are better translated with “for ____.”
2.9 DATIVE
The dative case marks a person (more rarely a thing) indirectly involved in an action or situation. A dative may indicate a recipient, a beneficiary, an advantage, a proximity, a friendly inclination, or the opposite of these. In most uses, the dative case is an adverbial modifier; the dative does have a core function as the object of certain special intransitive verbs.
| Memorandum |
| For nouns whose dative and ablative forms are the same, it may be difficult in reading to tell which case a specific word is. In the absence of other confirming information, such as a verb patterning with a dative object or a preposition which takes the ablative, a non-animate noun is more likely to be ablative; an animate noun is more likely to be dative. |
2.19 ACCUSATIVE
Most uses of the accusative case are core functions: direct object, object complement, subject of an infinitive. The accusative is also used adverbially as the object of many prepositions, and adverbially without prepositions to show place to which, duration of time, extent of space and degree.
2.29 ABLATIVE
Words in the ablative case are predominantly adverbial modifiers. The ablative provides information concerning when?, where?, why?, how?, by whom? Its many uses include means or instrument, time, place, cause, manner, agent, accompaniment, comparison, etc.
Some adverbial uses of the ablative always require a preposition, such as agent and accompaniment. Some uses may or may not have a preposition, e.g., expressions of manner, cause, place and separation/origin.
The following uses of the ablative are never governed by a Latin preposition:
- means
- time
- specification/respect
- comparison
- degree of difference
The ablative of description is used to modify a noun and is therefore an adjectival modifier.
There are two core uses of the ablative: as the object of a small group of special intransitive verbs and as the subject of an ablative absolute.
| Memorandum |
| The Romans themselves did not have all the categories we use to classify the uses of the ablative, and it is frequently difficult to clearly identify them, particularly with means, manner, cause and accompaniment. These case uses run on a continuum of meanings, and the distinctions can be blurred. |
2.44 LOCATIVE CASE (ItL CH16)
As its name (from locus place) implies, a noun in the locative case expresses the place where something happens; it is an adverbial case use. It answers the question quo (in) loco? ubi? in what place? where?. The locative case occurs only rarely, and thus is often not listed on charts summarizing noun morphology. In the singular of first and second declension nouns it has the form of the genitive singular. In the plural of the first and second declensions and throughout the third declension it has the form of the dative or ablative. The locative case is used chiefly for the following words:
- names of towns and small islands (e.g. Romae at Rome; Carthagini at Carthage)
- domi at home
- humi on the ground
- belli in war; domi bellique in war and peace
- ruri in the country
Example:
Erat Miseni classemque imperio praesens regebat. He was at Misenum and was commanding the fleet. (Pliny VI.16.7)
2.45 VOCATIVE CASE (ItL CH3)
The vocative case is used to address a person (or thing) directly. Its form is identical to the nominative in both the singular and the plural of all declensions, with two exceptions:
- 2nd declension nouns with the nominative singular in -us have the vocative singular ending in -e: amicus (nom sg); amice (voc sg)
- 2nd declension nouns with the nominative singular in -ius have the vocative singular ending in -i: filius (nom sg); fili (voc sg)
Examples:
Agricola, o amici, semper laborat. (Oh) friends, the farmer is always working.
Et tu, Brute? And you too, Brutus?